The latest (6th) issue of our ethnic map series of the Carpathian Basin also attempts to draft the changes that have taken place during the past five hundred years in the ethnic structure as well as to display its present-day state with the help of ethnic maps and a chart - this time referring to the present-day territory of Prekmurje (Transmura Region). The area presented is one of the most backward regions of Slovenia [1]. Transmura Region occupies an area of 948 km2 or 4.7% of the country, in its north eastern part. Over the past centuries the area was named „Tótság, Vendvidék” (in Hungarian) and labelled „Slovenska Krajna” [2] in Slovenian. The region situated in south western corner of Pannonia was part of Hungary between 900-1919 and 1941-1945 and annexed to the newly established Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia) in 1919. Prekmurje (Transmura Region) has been in use since then. Hungarians called it „Muramellék” (Region along the Mura) until 1945 [3], its name has established as „Muravidék” (Mura Region) for the past decades.

The maps on the front page show ethnic maps of the area of present-day Prekmurje referring to different time slices, based on the following census data: those collected in Hungary (1880, 1910, 1941), Yugoslavia (1931, 1991) and Slovenia (2002) using pie charts. They provide information on the contemporary territorial distribution of the main ethnic groups and administrative divisions. When writing the names of the settlements the prevailing official names are displayed in the first place, then below them - in the case of towns - the Hungarian denomination, whereas in case of other ethnically mixed settlements the locally important minority names are indicated. The eight supplementary maps of the reverse side show the linguistic-ethnic composition of the present-day Prekmurje in 1495, 1784, 1880, 1910, 1931, 1941, 1991 and 2002, respectively. The table here explores the absolute and relative changes in the population number of the main ethnic groups between 1787 and 2002. The data referring to the “ethnic-linguistic-origin” structure of the population living here before 1880 can be described as vague and of a rather varied nature. At the time of the Hungarian royal tax registration in 1495, conclusions for a probable absolute or relative “ethnic” majority of population living in the inhabited area of the studied territory - within the administrative areas of present-day settlements - could only be drawn from the given sources through analyzing direct references of “ethnic nature”, in most cases through the etymology of geographical names. Populated areas, existing settlements were determined on the basis of Csánki, D. (1894), Engel, P. (2001) for 1495 [4], and by Neu, J. (1782-84) for 1784. [5] The ethnic majorities of the particular settlements at the end of the 18th century were indicated mainly according to “Lexicon locorum..1773, Korabinszky J.M. and Vályi A. [6]. Mapping was based on the number of native speakers between 1880-1941 and ethnic affiliation in 1991 and 2002. Supplementary maps on the reverse contain official and dominant contemporary inscriptions of major settlements.

Elaboration of tax inventory of 1495 [7] by Kubinyi, A. (1996) [8] produced data for the calculations of population number in the area what is now Prekmurje, according to which ca 12,000 people might have lived here at that time [9]. Lendava and Dobrovnik, i.e. 2 of the 5 market towns (oppidum) of the region probably had Hungarian ethnic majority of population, whereas 27 and 4 of the 186 villages could have Hungarian and German majorities, respectively (Map 1.). Ethnic distribution of the settlements suggests 81.4% Slovenes, 16.6% Hungarians and 2% Germans as a total [10]. Spatial pattern should have been very similar to that in the 20th century, which means that Hungarian villages surrounding Alsólendva-Lendava as the centre of the estate were mainly found near the present-day border with Hungary, whereas the German ones formed a cluster close to the Styrian border. By that time the Slovenian ethnic area had stabilized in Prekmurje with the advancement of colonization initiated as early as the 12-13th centuries by the Hahold (later Bánffy) families who had been granted this virtually uninhabited woodland serving as borderland until the 12th century. The most important towns of the Slovenian ethnic area were Felsőlendva-Gornja Lendava (Grad), as the centre of the estate, and market towns Muraszombat-Murska Sobota and Turniscsa-Turnišče.

Although the area in concern formed part of the Kingdom of Hungary all over the warfare with the Turks, due to the closeness of the boundary between the Hapsburg and Ottoman empires with frequent incursions of the Turks, double taxation, drawing up armies and the subsequent epidemics there had been a massive depopulation, especially in the Hungarian and Slovenian villages in the flatland belonging to Zala County. Over this period Hungarians moved to the hilly woodland (Goričko) in increased number, having subsequently assimilated to Slovenes living in these environs [11]. Turks caused especially serious ravage in 1532, 1600, 1603, 1604 and 1664 [12]. Hostilities stopped in 1690 with the liberation of Nagykanizsa, a major stronghold and seat of vilajet from the Turkish occupation of 90 years. During the first years of peace ? according to an inventory in 1697 ? the most populous settlements were found in the west of Prekmurje, affected by warfare to a lesser extent: Felsőlendva-Grad (280 persons), Korong-Krog (273), Görlinc-Gerlinci, Muraszombat-Murska Sobota, Tessanóc-Tešanovci (250 each), Rakicsán-Rakičan (229). [13] Repopulation of the devastated areas were hindered by military campaigns between 1704-1706 and an epidemic of the plague in 1710-11 during the Hungarian War of Independence led by F. Rákóczi II (1703-1711).

With the advent of peace repopulation of the deserted settlements started almost immediately, especially over the fertile flatland. This process was reflected by the census of 1720: at that time of Hungarian taxpayer families of Prekmurje were found in highest numbers in Dobrónak-Dobrovnik (52) and Alsólendva-Lendava (44) (with Hungarian ethnic majority) and Tótkeresztúr-Križevci (55), Muraszombat-Murska Sobota (46) with overwhelmingly Slovenian population [14]. In the course of the extensive migrations which lasted until the 60s and 70s of the 18th century most of the Hungarian villages gained population from West Pannonia, but the formerly Hungarian settlements Kebeleszentmárton-Kobilja and Kapca were already repopulated by Slovenes. It is highly probable that the overpopulated Croatian region Medjimurje released considerable population to the left bank of Mura river and as a result the formerly Hungarian village Kot and Slovenian Hotiza had become overwhelmingly Croatian by the end of the 18th century [15] (Map 2.).

During the first (Austrian) official population census in Hungary (1787) 40.888 persons were registered in the present-day Prekmurje [16]. Of them an estimated 80.6% lived in settlements of Slovenian ethnic majority, and 16.9% in those of Hungarian, 1.4% of German and 1.1% of Croatian majority (Table 1.). At that time the most populous settlements were constantly the market towns of the southern area surrounded by fertile cropland: Alsólendva-Lendava (849 persons) and Dobrónak-Dobrovnik (781) with Hungarian ethnic majority and Turniscsa-Turnišče (647) and Muraszombat-Murska Sobota (629) with Slovenian one. As regards the ethnic proportions and lingual borders at the end of the 18th century Prekmurje was one of the few regions within the Carpatho-Pannonian area where no substantial changes occurred even during the 16 through early 18th centuries full of bloodshed.

According to the data by Nagy, L. (1828) and Fényes, E. (1839-43) in the first half of the 19th century, population of Slovenian lowland settlements of Ravensko and Dolinsko had been on the increase [17]. Hungarian villages around Alsólendva-Lendava heavily affected by the contemporary epidemics had lost 10 to 20% of population on the average. Demographic loss in Alsólendva-Lendava somehow became counterbalanced by the settlement of Jews here from the late 18th century; their number reached here 62 (98 in Muraszombat-Murska Sobota and 211 in Prekmurje) by 1830.

Following the Austrian-Hungarian Compromise (1867) at the first Hungarian census inquiring about native tongue (1880) of 73,767 people living in Prekmurje 76.9% declared themselves Slovenian, 17.7% Hungarian and 4.7% German native speakers (Table 1.). At that time out of the total of 177 settlements of today there were 141 with Slovenian ethnic majority and 33 with Hungarian majority (Map 3.). A significant increase of those declaring Hungarian ethnic affiliation was due to Magyarization of the population living along the Hungarian-Slovenian language borderand having become bi-lingual and also of Slovenes maintaining close relationship with Hungarian settlements in economy (e.g. through seasonal works in farming), culture and education. These were Slovenian villages situated primarily in the triangle Sal / Šalovci - Muraszombat / Murska Sobota - Turniscsa / Turnišče. Comparing with the ethnic pattern of the mid-19th century an important change was the massive influx of Slovenian vine-dressers, cotters and day-wage men from Dolinsko in the Hills of Lendva-Lendava after consolidation of land-strips in 1864 [18]. Between the censuses held in 1880 and 1910 the Slovenes of Prekmurje Hungarian language became to be used frequently among the Slovenes of Prekmurje. One third of Slovenes living in the region spoke Hungarian, with a majority of them along the lingual border and in the vicinity of Muraszombat-Murska Sobota. This bi-lingual environment was due to a social atmosphere favourable for Hungarians and resulted in a pattern when in 1910 the majority of population of Kebeleszentmárton-Kobilje, Bántornya-Turnišče, Muraszombat-Murska Sobota and Rátkalak-Ratkovci declared themselves as native Hungarian speakers, and Kisfalu-Pordašinci had undergone lasting Magyarization (Map 4.). Due to lingual assimilation and an accelerating overseas emigration the number of Slovenes stagnated, their proportion decreased (1910: 74.2%), with a concomitant rise of ethnic Hungarians in the first decade of the 20th century. Those declaring Hungarian ethnicity reached a hitherto unprecedented high ratio, 22.9% (20,738) in 1910 (Table 1.). The number of already Magyarized Jews also peaked at that time, having grown from 211 in 1828 to 978 in 1910 with the largest communities living in the towns Alsólendva-Lendava (382) and Muraszombat-Murska Sobota (234).

Following World War One and fall of the Hungarian Soviet Republic (1919. 08. 01) Yugoslav military troops occupied Prekmurje on 1919. 08 12-13 and the region became ceded finally to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes by the Trianon Peace Treaty (1920. 06. 04) [19]. Due to the closure of the new state border and lack of bridges over Mura river that could have provided links to the historical Slovenian territories the area virtually had fallen into a trap economically. An emblematic token of this poor situation was a massive outmigration of Jews [20]. Their number had shown a continuous downward trend from 978 in 1910 to 476 in 1931. The change of regime led to the abandonment of the region by civil servants, police officials and other persons confined to Hungarian statehood and to reorganizing govermental authorities with positions filled by Slovenes, appearance of armed forces recruited from Serbs and Croats, a change of self-awareness of bi-lingual population (Slovenization), all being conform to the newly established state.

As a result, the number of Hungarians living in Prekmurje dropped to 14,065 or 15.2% registered by 1921 (Table 1.). Between the two world wars special efforts were made by the new state order using a wide range of means of anti-Hungarian propaganda to stabilize ethnic identity of Slovenes and to break up the Hungarian ethnic bloc along the borderland. The latter typical in all regions ceded from Hungary to Yugoslavia was especially spectacular in the course of the Yugoslav land reform. According to the Ministry of Agrarian Reform of 1921. 09. 05 only Serbs, Croats and Slovenes were entitled to share the landed property confiscated predominantly from the Hungarians [21]. To the former Esterházy estate which used to extend over the largest part of the Hungarian ethnic area 1305 Slovenes were settled from settlements that had been ceded to Italy or from Prekmurje. Their colonies were founded in Petišovci-Petesháza (1921-24), Benica (1922), Dolga vas-Lendvahosszúfalu (1922-34), Pince marof-Pincemajor, Gaberje-Zalagyertyános, Mostje-Lendvahídvég (1925), Kamovci-Kámaháza (1931) [22]. During the period between the censuses of 1921 and 1931 in the villages where there had remained any land to divide, masses of Hungarians were forced to retract their identity and they declared Slovenian ethnicity [23] in order to obtain plots to cultivate. When all is said it is not surprising that in 1931 there were only 7,607 persons in Prekmurje who kept on declaring Hungarian ethnicity. By that time the number of settlements with Hungarian majority had dropped to 15 (33 in 1910) (Map 5.). There had been a steadily growing emigration of landless Hungarians excluded from the reform and of Slovenes of Goričko with barren soils, mainly to South America, France and Germany [24].

During World War Two, in the days of desintegration of Yugoslavia the German army occupied Prekmurje on 1941. 04. 06, the area was annexed to Hungary on 1941. 04. 16, with the exception of three German villages along the border (Fikšinci-Füxling, Kramarovci-Sinnersdorf, Ocinje-Gintzenhof) which became part of the German Empire. The region of Prekmurje had belonged to Vas and Zala counties until 1945. 04. 03. The repeated change of statehood involved the appearance of new civil servants, military forces and migration of ordinary people which had led to Magyarization of Slovenes with command of Hungarian and living close to lingual border and turning of those with ambiguous identity into Hungarians. During the population census of 1941 out of the 83,787 total population 20.1% or 16,852 persons declared themselves Hungarian native speakers and 76.4% of them indicated Slovenian as vernacular (Table 1., Map 6.). The number of settlements with Hungarian ethnic majority increased to 28.

In two district seats of the region, in Muraszombat-Murska Sobota and in Alsólendva-Lendava, the ratio of Hungarian native speakers was 39.8% and 91.2%, respectively. The proportion of bi-lingual population causing considerable fluctuation in statistics was 27.8% on the average over the region and between 40-80% in the Slovenian villages within the Muraszombat / Murska Sobota - Sal / Šalovci - Kebeleszentmárton / Kobilje triangle. A new phenomenon was the emerging self-awareness of Gypsies under Hungarian administration: 751 persons declared themselves Roma native speakers and in Kisszombat-Černelavci they formed 59% of population.

During the period in concern - apart from the war losses - total population of Prekmurje decreased to a certain extent due to an internment of Slovenes (581 alien colonists) to Sárvár in June 1942 [25] and deportation of Magyarized Jews (Israelites; 366 in 1941 living predominantly in Alsólendva-Lendava and Muraszombat-Murska Sobota) to Nazi concentration and extermination camps in 1944.

A repeated change of political power in April 1945 involved a new wave of Hungarian-Slovenian migration (in a direction opposite to that of 1941), especially of persons confined to state administration and return of the interned Slovenes. Hungarian population was intimidated and decimated by deportations of retaliation character carried out in June and July 1945 [26]. No wonder that a mere 10.8% of the population of Prekmurje or 10,246 persons dared to declare Hungarian ethnicity at the 1948 Yugoslav census (Table 1.). The dwellers of German villages along the Styrian border (ca 1,600 persons) were deported in the summer of 1945 and Slovenes moved in [27]. In the first years after the war the ethnic pattern changed particularly in Lendava-Alsólendva, the most important centre of Hungarians within the region, where their proportion only reached 37.6% in 1948 (1941: 91.2%).

In the bureaucratic socialist era (1945-1968) a policy of denationalization was pursued over the Hungarian-populated territories of Yugoslavia. Though camouflaged by the ideology of proletarian internationalism, it was continuously strengthening the feeling of rootlessness among the Hungarian minority population [28]. Not surprisingly that in these circumstances there had been an expansion of mixed marriages between Hungarians and Slovenes since the 1970s producing as a rule children of Slovenian identity [29]. Socialist industrialization, urbanization starting with the late 1940s Hungarians with shattered self-awareness, seeking for jobs were leaving its indigenous area of settlement in an increasing number and were scattered on territories with overwhelmingly Slovenian population over Prekmurje or resettled to inner areas of Slovenia. Over the period between 1948-1991 the number of Hungarians living in inner Slovenian territories, west of Mura river increased from 195 to 971. As a result of ageing, emigration and accelerated natural assimilation the Hungarians living in the region had lost one fourth between 1948 and 1991. The demographic situation from the Hungarian aspect turned even more dramatic between 1991-2002 as Hungarian native speakers lessened by 19.2% whereas Hungarian ethnicity shrank by 29% (!) over this decade. The decline of Hungarian self-awareness becomes evident from the fact that 6 villages (Hodoš-Őrihodos, Prosenjakovci-Pártosfalva, Čikečka vas-Csekefa, Trimlini-Hármasmalom, Gaberje-Zalagyertyános, Petišovci-Petesháza) turned into settlements of Slovenian majority by 2002 Map 7., front page map).

The first census held in the independent Slovenia in 2002 established population number of Prekmurje at 82,359 showing a loss as compared to the 1991 census. Ethnic Slovenes constituted 85%, Hungarians made up 6.6% and Croats 1.1%. 5.2% of population did not declare ethnicity (Table 1.). In some Hungarian-populated settlements, e.g. in Dolnji Lakoš-Alsólakos, Dolina p. L.-Völgyifalu, Domanjševci-Domonkosfa, Pordašinci-Kisfalu, Petišovci-Petesháza, Lendava-Alsólendva this ratio reached 10-15%. Distribution of population by native language (86% Slovenes, 8% Hungarians, 1.8% Croats) showed a steady Slovenization.

An overwhelming part of population in Prekmurje (70-71 thousand, or 85-86%) declared Slovene ethnicity. They form the majority in 159 settlements out of 176 as a total of the region (Map 8., front page map). 73.6% of the Slovenes live in Ravensko and Dolinsko comprising their most populous communities: Murska Sobota (10,837 Slovenes), Beltinci-Belatinc (2,104), Lendava-Alsólendva (1,982), Odranci-Adorjánfalva (1,545), Bakovci-Barkóc (1,475), Turnišče-Bántornya (1,443), Rakičan-Battyánfalva (1,388). The northern hills of Goričko, a backward area mostly composed of tiny villages which accommodated 46% of the Slovenes in 1910 has lost 40% of its population (predominantly Slovenes of Lutheran confession) since then, whilst the primary centre of Prekmurje region Murska Sobota-Muraszombat experienced a 4.5-fold increase.

The number of Hungarians (most of them living in the Hungarian-Slovenian border area) had dropped to 5,429 persons (6.6%) by ethnicity and 6,609 (8%) by native language by 2002 from 16,852 or 20.1% in 1941. Their most populous community is to be found in Lendava-Alsólendva, a natural centre of the Hungarian ethnic area (696 persons by ethnicity or 20.5% of the town’s population and 880 by mother tongue or 25.9%) (Map 8., front page map).

The number of Croats is 920, constituting 1.1% (by vernacular 1511 or 1.8%). Most of them live in Lendava-Alsólendva (332), Murska Sobota-Muraszombat (186), Petišovci-Petesháza (62) and in Pince marof.Pincemajor (35). The latter is a colony founded in 1925 and it had been the only settlement of the region with Croatian ethnic majority until 1991 (front page map).

In 2002 988 persons declared Roma ethnicity in Prekmurje (1226 by native tongue). Publications by the Centers of Social Works (Lendava-Alsólendva, Murska Sobota-Muraszombat) referring to the period 1985-90, their number was estimated at 3740. [30] Most of the people considered Gypsies live in the western part of the region (e.g. Serdica, Pertoča, Vadarci, Domajinci) in Dobrovnik-Dobrónak and in Dolga vas-Lendvahosszúfalu (front page map). The only settlement inhabited by Gypsies exclusively is Pušča-Puszta, having seceded from Černelavci-Kisszombat (2002).

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